Cyber-Bullying and aTeenage Suicide Essay Example for Free

Cyber-Bullying and aTeenage Suicide Essay A study done by Pew Research Center from 2007-2010 stated that 95% of all teens use the internet and 80% of them use social networking sites (www. Edgewave. com). One in three teens is cyber-bullied (The Guardian, Tues, Aug 6, 2013). One in 13 teens face persistence abuse online (The Guardian. ). Cyber-bullies do not see the harm they cause or the consequences of their actions which minimizes any feelings of remorse. This gives the kids more advantage to say crude and hurtful things they would not do in person. Cyber-bullying is devastating when nasty things are verbalized, but when someone sends pictures of one that is not meant for the world to see this type of damage is more detrimental than the nastiness of words. The betrayal one must feel to know someone close to them would hurt them by exposing such material. The aftermath, for that experience is destructive for one’s self-image and self-esteem. When a teen is subjected to such negativity, it may push them over the edge. The damage cyber-bullying causes can be deep and long lasting. The damage that cyber-bullying can cause is low self-esteem, withdrawal, poor grades, school absences, self- harm, depression, risks for addictive behaviors such as drinking and using drugs and in the worst cases one take their own life, because they can no longer take the never ending pain that is being caused by the bullying. Cyber-bullying has been the final cause in the teens mentioned in this report as to why they committed suicide. Although, this was not the only underlining factor, many of these teens suffered from depression and other mental illnesses (WebMD, 2007). I have found several articles about teen suicides that were connected to cyber-bullying. The first such case of teen suicide connected to cyber-bullying was reported on October 7, 2003 in Essex Jct. , Vermont. Ryan Halligan was a 13 year old and he was bullied for numerous years. His parents thought the bullying was done and over with until his suicide. His father went into his computer and found that Ryan was being severely harassed. The person who bullied him years before, but became friends with later bullied Ryan. His parent has warned Ryan not to trust this person, because he betrayed him before. Ryan told his friend stories and eventually his friend turned on him unknowingly to Ryan and he was being bullied over social media sites and at school. Ryan’s father was not aware of this until after Ryan’s death and he was trying to make sense of why he son took his own life. He soon figured it out. Ryan’s parents were devastated. John Halligan has been totally dedicated in honoring the memory of his son. As well as to raise awareness on the issues, that led to Ryan’s death. John spearheaded the Vermont’s Bully Prevention bill that was signed into law (ACT 117) in May 2004 just a few months after Ryan’s death (RyanPatrickHalligan. Mr. Halligan has also successfully led the passage of the law pertaining to mandatory suicide prevention education in public schools (ACT 114) signed in April 2006 (RyanPatrickHalligan. Org). John Halligan has been recognized with five award for his outstanding community service, hard work and outreach he has done in his sons memory and his dedication to educate others on these issues (RyanPatrickHalligan. Org). Prior to their suicides, some of these teens did cry out for help by posting heartbreaking videos and updates on their sites. The examples I would like to use to support this statement are as follows: â€Å"My Story: struggling, bullying, suicide, and self-harm’ Amanda’s YouTube Video. Watching this video of Amanda was heartbreaking. To see any children go through that kind of pain and they feel they have nowhere to turn just breaks my heart. I have a teenage daughter who has been bullied in every way imaginable. I know what problems being bullied and harassed can create. She cried out for help with the Facebook posts, the flashcards, cutting and other behaviors. As I stated earlier, cyber-bullying is not the only problem that causes one to commit suicide there are other factors involved. I can relate to an extent with the parents who have lost their children to suicide. My daughter has attempted suicide and almost succeeded. It has been the worst experience to go through. She has refused all the help that was always there for her until the last attempt where she has been placed in a residential facility that I feel has saved my daughter’s life. Tyler Clementi was a quiet 18-year-old talented violinist. He started his first year at Rutgers University in 2010. Tyler â€Å"came out of the closet† with his family before leaving for college his brother James said in a statement where he discussed what a wonder person Tyler was, the suicide of his brother, what life is like without him and the close bond they shared growing up and that they both are â€Å"gay†. (James Clementi, www. queerty. com). Tyler discovered his roommate used his webcam to stream intimate moments with his boyfriend over the internet (New York Times, March 16, 2012). Tyler sent and e-mail requesting a single room, because of the webcam spying issue on September 21, 2010 about 4 a.m. (New York Times, March 16, 2012). Dharun Ravi whom was the roommate of Tyler apparently searched the internet prior to starting Rutgers and discovered Tyler’s sexuality. Dharum was not pleased to have a â€Å"gay† roommate and sent several texts to friend about keeping gays out (New York Times, March 16, 2012). Tyler asked his roommate for some privacy one evening to spend time with his companion. This second attempt to use his webcam to mainstream activity between Tyler and his companion was halted, because Tyler found the camera pointed at his bed (New York Times, March 16, 2012). Dharum tweeted â€Å"that he seen his roommate making out with a dude† and invited others via text to watch the live stream action (New York Times, March 16, 2012). From all the information, I have read on this case the final message from Tyler that was discovered after his death in a gay chat room was how to deal with the invasion of his privacy in such intimate moments and facing the people who were ignorant enough to watch it. I am going to assume that he felt he would have been bullied and harassed constantly, because of the webcam video. On September 22, 2010 at 8:42 P. M. Tyler Clementi posted on Facebook â€Å"Jumping off the GW bridge, sorry†. Tyler’s body was not recovered, but the police did pull an unidentified male body from the Hudson River north of the river where he jumped. Tyler’s wallet with his freshman identification was at the scene (ABC News, Sept 29, 2010). Dharum Ravi was charged with several charged and served a jail sentence. The other person involve exchange her testimony for reduced charges (New York Times, March 16, 2012). A huge problem with cyber-bullying is that is can be done with complete anonymity. Teenage years are tough enough to experience. When a teenager is being cyber-bullied and humiliated in front of the millions of people, it is like having a brown bag over your head in the social media world many can take a jabs instantaneously. When they feel like â€Å"everyone† is against them their self-esteem is non-existent and they slowly fall into a depressive type state. Not knowing who is saying or doing the harsh content makes it worse and makes it easier for the teenager to withdrawal. With the research I have done for this project, the experiences I have experienced as a parent and help from my teenagers, I have found many social networking sites that allow anonymity postings. A few examples of these social networking sites are www. pencourage. com, www. youmitter. com , Tumblr. com and formspring. me. The one that I found the most information on was the social networking site Ask. fm. All of these sites mentioned are question and answer social networking sites that allow anonymous participation. Ask. fm has been in the national headlines involving several teenage suicides. Ask. fm has 30 million participators who minors (Huffington Post, August 30, 2013). With the research I have done on Ask.fm, I came across the story of Hannah Smith a beautiful, 14 year old who committed suicide due to being subjected to cruel taunts and insults on Ask. fm (The Huffington Post, Aug 30, 2013). David Smith, Hannah’s father stated in the Huffington Post on August 30, 2013, â€Å"These sick people are just able to go online and hide behind a mask of anonymity while they abuse vulnerable teenagers†¦ When they’re sitting behind a computer screen you can say whatever you want and there no comebacks, but these trolls need to realize that they are affecting people’s lives in the most horrific way imaginable† (Huffington Post, Aug 30, 2013). In my opinion, Mr. Smith stated this perfect. I have wondered if any of the people involved in the cyber-bullying that finally pushed Hannah and other teens over the edge to end their lives if they have a conscience. I wonder if they are able to sleep at night knowing they are some of the reason another person ending their life. Interesting, with more investigating for this report I found on a website called www. cyberbullyingresearchcenter. us . The information that is in investigation on the case with Ask.fm and the cyber-bullying case of Hannah Smith has been founded that 98% of the messages sent to Hannah were from the same IP address as Hannah was using which indicates she was sending the hateful, threatening messages to herself (www. cyberbullyingresearchcenter. org). IP is short for Internet Protocol Address. IP addresses are assigned to every computer on an Ethernet Network (www. dummies. com). The IP address is similar to your home address. No two computers can have the same IP address on the same network (www. dummies.com). Ask. fm has identified four messages that were sent to Hannah from different IP addresses and has agreed to turn the information over to the police (The Telegraph August 11, 2013). There is no guaranteed proved that Hannah sent these messages to herself. There are other possibilities of how the messages were sent from the same IP address such as Wi-Fi connection or a school network. Mr. Smith does not deny Hannah may have sent herself some of these messages, but feels Ask. fm are trying to cover their butts. Mr. Smith has the name of one of the trolls that was harassing his daughter and the authorities do not seem interested in the information. In my opinion, there is much more to this suicide story than we the public will ever know about. Due to the recent suicides that involved Ask. fm on August 19, 2013 the social networking website agreed to make some changes (www. heavy. com). Ask. fm has implicated a report bullying or harassment button that would compel the website to investigate reported comments (www. heavy. com). This feature is expected to go live in September 2013. Ask.fm stated â€Å"they wanted their users to be able to have fun, share information and make friends freely they want their younger users to be able to do this in a safe environment† (www. heavy. com) Finally, the teen suicide rate has increased over the last 15 years (WebMD 2007). In my opinion, this has a lot to do with the advanced technology that teens have constant access to today. The ole bullying has transpired into a more severe problem called cyber-bullying. This is done through social networks, instant messages, e-mails and text messages. Electronic bullying is instant. Bullying is no longer the traditional note passing in the halls at schools. Bullying and cyber-bullying does not stop at the end of the school day as it did prior to the internet and other advanced technology we have today. Cyber-bullying triples suicide risks in teens (Sherry Boschert, Pediatric News. Digital Network). Girls are often the target of being cyber-bullied than boys. Usually by a 9% difference in studies, I came across. Being victimized by a bully can happen at any given time of the day, by anybody and regardless of what stance in authority they may hold. I was completely shocked to have come across the Andrew Cain story. Andrew Cain was a 19 year old from Pullman, Washington, whom had a criminal history since he was a minor. Most recently, Andrew failed to appear for a court hearing for charges he received in March 2013 for a probation violation (Huffington Post, June 27, 2013). Not appearing for the court hearing, warrants were issued for his arrest. The deputy posted on the Sheriff’s Facebook page that included a wanted poster and this statement â€Å"We have decided that Andrew Cain is no longer the wanted person of the week. He is the wanted person of the month of June Congratulations! † (www. heavy. com). Andrew had received texts, Facebook messages, e-mails and instant messages about this post on the Sheriff’s Facebook page about what a horrible person he was. It was not long until bogus rumors started about the charges Andrew had. According to his sister, Alise Smith she received a text from Andrew about how this has bothered him and feels that it was just too much for him to handle. Andrew Cain was in the process of turning his life around. Unfortunately, due to heartless people we will never see how Andrew Cain’s life could have turned out. On June 13, 2013, Andrew Cain committed suicide. Indeed, while I do feel the advanced technology we have today are very beneficial in many aspects of everyone’s lives. I feel that the advanced technologies that we have become accustomed to should be used with responsibility and integrity. Cyber-bullying in a nutshell is a deadly game to play. Cyber-bullies do not see what harm it causes their victim by harassing them via social media sites unless something drastic happens to their victim due to them being bullied. I really would like to ask some of the teens that have been charged in connection to these suicides if they are able to sleep at night. How the teens involved are going to feel knowing they have been a reason, why another human being took their life? They may not think about it now, because they were able to be that cruel to someone, but what about when they are older and realize what their actions caused? I would like to ask the parents of the cyber-bullies who have been charged in the suicide cases if â€Å"they† had any issues growing up or any un-resolved issues that would cause them to be so hateful to another human being. What is your opinion? I am hopeful one day that the internet world will become a safe place for all children to enjoy. Where a child can go for fun and not become depressed to the point they want to take their own life, because they have no idea how to handle all the pain and pressure of being bullied and being a teenager. I do feel so much sadness in my heart with all the young lives lost to the cruel, senseless act of other humans.

Health and illness: Social and biological constructs

Health and illness: Social and biological constructs Define both health and illness as social and biological constructs. Examine the ways in which both constructs differ in your answer make reference to health patterns in two contrasting cultures The everyday absence of disease or illness is known as our health (Bilton et al 2002). Health is simply a biological description of our bodies, and if something is not right, then we deem ourselves ill (Bilton et al 2002). There is understood to be two views on health and illness, one being the biological and the other sociological. Biological views of our health looks at our bodies through the biomedical model of health, this is used by health professionals in the diagnoses and treatment of a disease (Bilton et al 2002). If a person is diagnosed with an illness, it can be treated by forms or medicines, therapies, such as physiotherapy, or by surgery (Bilton et al 2002). The biomedical model looks at our body in different ways and it is understood that the mind and the body can be treated differently; this is referred to as mind/body dualism. Plus the body is liked to a machine, meaning it can be repaired, the doctor being the engineer that repairs it (Nettleton 2006). Because of the ability to diagnose illnesses and recommend treatment, the health profession hold a high power status, along with the dominance of the health industry (Bilton et al 2002). Society has been entrenched with this power held by a health professional, we have become dependent on going to seek medical advice because of their experience on the understanding of being ill and letting them decide whether treatment is needed (Bilton et al 2002). Doctors comprehend that health and illness is not a shared by their patients, so education and expensive advertisements attempt to promote awareness and symptoms. The Biomedical model is criticised by socialist McKeown (1976) were he argued that improved hygiene, sanitation and nutrition have been important social improvements of health (McKeown 1976 in Parry 2010). Furthermore Illich (1975) argues that modern medicine is iatrogenic, meaning it creates rather than cures disease (Illich 1975 in Parry 2010). Marxist (1972) theories also argue that the p rominence of the medical model removes the attention away from social causes of disease (Marxist 1972 in Parry 2010, Adams et al 2002). In contrast to the biomedical model we also have the sociological model of health, it is understood that this considers the social origins and influences on disease (Bilton et al 2002). The social model of health considers the environment, social and behavioural factors into consideration. The social model has a long history, from influences such as urbanisation and industrialisation (Wainwright 2007). Likewise material deprivation plays a fundamental role in the cause of disease (Wainwright 2007). This is because the poor may be refused or not have the knowledge to access to goods and services for health. Providing clean water, good housing and an adequate food supply can contribute to a person being healthier (Wainwright 2007). It is claimed that if a person is working in a job that is strenuous then they are more likely to catch disease and become ill (Wainwright 2007). It is also understood that working class people have a higher mortality rate than those in the other classes (Wa inwright 2007, Parry 2010). This could be due to the working class living in industrialised areas or highly populated areas as the spread of disease is more common (Bilton et al 2002). Likewise work related accidents are more prone to people working in industrialised areas (Bilton et al 2002, Wainwright 2007). Health education can play a role in improving the health of people, if people can understand how leading unhealthy lifestyles can contribute to illness and disease then maybe this will turn them away from the unhealthy lifestyle (Bilton et al 2002, Parry 2010). Some forms of an unhealthy lifestyle could be smoking, eating fatty foods or lacking physical activity (Sanna 2006). The social model of health also suggests that disability is driven upon an impaired person as a result of the way society is organised (Oliver and Sapey 1999). Suggesting a person with an impairment has become unable to remain in the community due to the social and physical environment stopping them conti nuing to lead an independent life (Oliver and Sapey 1999). In comparison the culture in China have a different view on the health of the body. This is understood to be the body is in good health when it is in total harmony, this referring to the Yin and Yang (Wong 2008), factors such as the environment influence this imbalance (Wong 2008). To restore the balance, traditional remedial practises are used; an example of this is herbal tea (Wong 2008, Holtz 2008). The Chinese government have a laissez-flair policy for health care in rural areas, they also utilise a pay as you go type scheme for when a person visits a hospital or clinic (Holtz 2008, Wong 2008). People in urban areas can also have government health insurance which aims to provide more access to health care and better technologies (Holtz 2008). Currently the Chinese government have invested heavily on improving public health by modifying and enlarging disease prevention units, supply control centres and disaster relief in some of the countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s major cities (Holtz 2 008). Mental health is one of Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s major concerns; this is due to the rapid social and economic changes, financial losses, gambling, extramarital affairs, family violence, divorce and raises in substance abuse (Holtz 2008). Furthermore unemployment and the widening gap between the wealthy and the poor are having an effect on the Chinese populationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s mental health (Holtz 2008). Mexico has a range of packages available for its residents to enable them to access health care (Holtz 2008); this includes the social security institution which provides coverage for all medical care and prescriptions (Holtz 2008). Also the social security system, which covers workers, is made up of several agencies and is funded by employers, employees and the government (Holtz 2008). Relationship failures, imbalances with food, water, air and temperature add to the causes of illness in Mexico (Holtz 2008). Clean water has been a challenge for Mexico as this is needed to prevent illness and maintaining health (Holtz 2008). It is understood by some that illness is caused as a failure to relate to god (Holtz 2008) and due to the high costs in health care in Mexico; there are spiritual and physical healers that use traditional technics (Holtz 2008). The Curanderos, are believed to be chosen by god to heal people (Holtz 2008). Yerberos specialize in using herbs and spices for treatment (Holtz 2008). Sobadors use massage therapy to try and correct muscle imbalance (Holtz 2008). Parteras are midwife like, women only, who have been trained as a birth attendant by other family members or friends this is cheaper to pay for than a physician (Holtz 2008).

Pearl Harbor :: essays research papers

PEARL HARBOR AMERICA ENTERS THE WAR   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  December 7, 1941, â€Å"A date that will live in infamy,† was the name that our President gave the worst military attack ever on United States soil, Pearl Harbor. It all started in May 1940, when Japan sent Kiichi Gunji to the newest Pacific Battle Ship Port. We chose to read this book because we both are interested in Pearl Harbor and the new movie about it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A major incident in the book Pearl Harbor was how the Japanese got all of the information it needed to attack the United States. They came over by a cruse ship from Japan to Hawaii and went around Hawaii like tourists. Yoshikawa and Mikami was the main spy who went around the island in a taxi with the driver named Kotoshirodo. They spied from several spots but liked the pier at Pearl City the best. He liked it so much because he could see the Pearl Harbor and the naval air strips on Ford Island from there. He went every so often so he did not make anyone too suspicious and also made sure he never went in the same clothing each time he went. He sent all the information he gathered and sent it back to Japan to be looked over. These spies where a major part of the story and the way the book ended. Another major event in this story is when the author talked about Yamamoto’s Operation Hawaii and all the problems with them. In February 1941, Commander Minoru Genda was assigned to Yamamoto’s Operation Hawaii. His comment was the plan was difficult but not impossible; but he turned down a lot of Yamamoto’s idea. Some ideas he didn’t keep were: the plans would take off from carriers about 500 miles from Hawaii. They would not have enough gas to make the trip there and back to the carrier ships, so Yamamoto’s plans to fly towards the carriers until their gas ran out and ditch in the Pacific, was scrapped. Genda wrote up a new plan that had the attack starts at dawn and should be a total surprise. Carriers would refuel at sea at Midway Island, and the planes would drop torpedo, dive, and high-level bombing on the United States ship and planes. Pearl Harbor :: essays research papers PEARL HARBOR AMERICA ENTERS THE WAR   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  December 7, 1941, â€Å"A date that will live in infamy,† was the name that our President gave the worst military attack ever on United States soil, Pearl Harbor. It all started in May 1940, when Japan sent Kiichi Gunji to the newest Pacific Battle Ship Port. We chose to read this book because we both are interested in Pearl Harbor and the new movie about it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A major incident in the book Pearl Harbor was how the Japanese got all of the information it needed to attack the United States. They came over by a cruse ship from Japan to Hawaii and went around Hawaii like tourists. Yoshikawa and Mikami was the main spy who went around the island in a taxi with the driver named Kotoshirodo. They spied from several spots but liked the pier at Pearl City the best. He liked it so much because he could see the Pearl Harbor and the naval air strips on Ford Island from there. He went every so often so he did not make anyone too suspicious and also made sure he never went in the same clothing each time he went. He sent all the information he gathered and sent it back to Japan to be looked over. These spies where a major part of the story and the way the book ended. Another major event in this story is when the author talked about Yamamoto’s Operation Hawaii and all the problems with them. In February 1941, Commander Minoru Genda was assigned to Yamamoto’s Operation Hawaii. His comment was the plan was difficult but not impossible; but he turned down a lot of Yamamoto’s idea. Some ideas he didn’t keep were: the plans would take off from carriers about 500 miles from Hawaii. They would not have enough gas to make the trip there and back to the carrier ships, so Yamamoto’s plans to fly towards the carriers until their gas ran out and ditch in the Pacific, was scrapped. Genda wrote up a new plan that had the attack starts at dawn and should be a total surprise. Carriers would refuel at sea at Midway Island, and the planes would drop torpedo, dive, and high-level bombing on the United States ship and planes.

Modernizing The Crucible Essay -- The Crucible Arthur Miller Witchcraf

Modernizing The Crucible Imagine you are a director who has been asked to direct a modern version of The Crucible. Decide on how you would make the play modern and the kind of setting that you feel is the most appropriate for conveying the themes of the play. In your discussion, you should deal with what you feel are the main themes of the play that you want to focus on and how the setting will enhance and even add depth to what you have to say. Firstly, I feel that in order to make the play as modern as possible, the play has to have a feel which all of its viewers can instantly identify with, as well as being realistic when compared with current world events. Hence the setting which produces the most realistic play, as well as portraying events that viewers can identify strongly with, will therefore be the most appropriate for conveying the themes of the play. I have also decided to elaborate on the themes of hysteria, intolerance, integrity and choosing a scapegoat. For my setting, I will rely heavily on a combination of two world events that, in differen...

Technology Infrastructures for Healthcare Access to Rural Residents Ess

Given the recent passage of the heath care bill, and complicated language within the bill it is unclear if electronic health records (EHR) systems will be mandatory. Nonetheless, research indicates that electronic Health Records improve patient safety and satisfaction. However, the implementation cost of this process is significant. Memorial Hospital in Wyoming, a 99 bed hospital, implemented a full electronic medical records system in 18 months at a cost of $2 million dollars. Memorial Hospital did have a successful implementation and was able to stay within budget and on-time (â€Å"Lessons Learned†, 2009). Research indicates that initial cost of EHR systems is $44,000 per full-time employee (FTE) with the ongoing maintenance cost of $8500 per FTE (Miller, West, Broem, Ganchoff, 2005). Given the significant cost it is very important that the culture of the organization is ready for the transformation from paper to electronic. Creating an implementation strategy will help en sure the project stays on time and budget. Health information technology (health IT) enables healthcare providers to improve patient care by secure use while sharing health information with others as authorized by the patient. The use of electronic health records (EHRs) constitutes Health IT as opposed to paper medical records to retain people's health information (US Dept of Health, 2010). In addition, Health IT allows a secure exchange between healthcare providers and consumers in the management of healthcare information. It is hoped that Health IT will both improve patient care and our nation’s healthcare system. There are two classifications of electronic health record systems. First, products such as Microsoft Vault and Google Health, allow an individual pe... ...urthermore, rural Americans have a much higher rate of obesity compared to the urban population. In fact, the obesity crisis in rural American has surfaced since 1980. Prior to 1980, the rural population had a much lower rate of obesity than the urban population (Tai-Seale and Chandler, 2003). In addition, if the baby boomers follow past life-cycle age related migration patterns to rural areas, 30 percent more adult age 55-75 will live in rural areas by 2020 (Cromartie and Nelson, 2009). The graph below illustrates the recent and projected nonmetro population change among 55-74 year olds in the Midwest. While data was available for all five U.S. regions, the researcher’s focused on the Midwest as this research was conducted in the Midwest (Source:USDA, Economic Research Service using data from the U.S. Census Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics).

Cheating and Sportsmanship

Cheating and Sportsmanship HPE essay-BY Elliott Biggs Just like everything in life, sports too are governed by rules, customs and even competition. Sports are a way through which we are able to connect with our past and have good feelings about the future. Sports acts as a way of bonding people despite their age, gender and race differences. Sports today, instead of bonding people and teaching them discipline and teamwork is causing them to cheat. And athletes have a reason to cheat now with all the fame, drugs and endorsements available to gain from.Cheating in sports is certainly not something new; it has been taking place ever since sports and sporting competitions were first introduced. 2000 years before Mike Tyson bit a piece of Evander Holyfield’s ear and due to it faced disqualification in the boxing match, a boxer from Thessaly, Eupolus’s had bribed 3 of his opponents to take dives in the Olympics of 388 BC (Los Angeles Times). Eupolus’s cheating is consi dered to have been the first cheating act to have been committed in sports. Everyone wants to win and wants an easy way to do it.The way people cheat in sports has become various and diversified over the years but I will discuss only three. Performance enhancing drugs, performance enhancing equipment and blood doping. First, Performance enhancing drugs. The use of enhancement â€Å"substances† for sporting events dates back to the ancient Greeks and ancient Maya. Performance potions where utilized by the Greeks to increase their abilities, and cocoa leaves where thought to be used by the ancient Maya to increase their abilities.Today, athletes will go to many lengths to increase athletic ability, including: steroids, HGH, Amphetamines, and even animal or human organs just as the Greeks did in their time. Most young athletes will tell you that the competitive drive to win can be very intense. Besides the satisfaction of personal gain, young athletes often pursue dreams of maki ng it to the Olympics or a place on a professional team. This competitive environment, created by our culture, has led to a more common use of steroids and other performance-enhancing agents in sports.For a growing number of athletes, winning at all costs includes taking anabolic steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs. Some may appear to achieve physical gains from such drugs, but at what cost? The truth is that long-term effects of steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs haven't been painstakingly studied. And short-term benefits are flawed with many potential side-effects and consequences such as loss of medals, eligibility and even death. Billie Holiday said â€Å"Dope never helped anybody sing better or play music better or do anything better.All dope can do for you is kill you – and kill you the long, slow, hard way. † It isn’t worth it. People can die because of these things but they will do anything to win. The use of performance enhancing equipment has many limitations and boundaries. For example, i believe that if you have to use such equipment then it is alright. E. g. Oscar pistorius. Pistorius has below the knee amputations on both legs that have been fitted with Flex-Foot Cheetah carbon fiber transtibial prostheses. He has no choice; if he wants to achieve his goal as an athlete he must use this equipment.Some say that this puts him at an advantage, but i disagree. If they make them just long enough to give the same amount of spring as the human legs. But, if the competitors are to use equipment unnecessarily, it would be unfair. E. g. a corked bat is a specially modified baseball bat that has been filled with cork or other lighter, less dense substances to make the bat lighter without losing much power. A lighter bat gives a hitter a quicker swing and may improve the hitter's timing. One thing that might make this fair would be if every competitor used the same equipment.But that would not solve anything, would that not just put them back where they started. This is unfair on other competitors because it gives the athlete an unfair advantage by making them more aerodynamic, faster, leap further or maybe even swim faster by eliminating water resistance. What is the point of athletes using suits anyway, in the end it all still comes down to raw talent anyway. Say swimmer a’s time is 27. 6 secs and swimmer b’s time is 28. 4 secs. They wear the suit which takes of 0. 01 of a second. And swimmer a’s time becomes 27. 59 and swimmer b’s becomes 28. 39.Swimmer a still wins anyway. Blood doping. The process of blood doping, also called blood boosting or blood packing, involves illicitly increasing the number of red blood cells throughout one’s body. In terms of anatomy red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the muscles. With more oxygen being carried to the muscles during rigorous activity, the longer the muscles will perform without building up lactic ac id. Once lactic acid builds up within the bloodstream it restricts the flow of oxygen to working muscles therefore producing fatigue. In essence with more red blood cells more oxygen can be arried to working muscles, therefore increasing endurance and reducing fatigue. For this very reason blood doping has become a favourite practice of some elite endurance athletes due to the fact that it gives them improved aerobic capacity. It allows them to perform rigorous activity, such as cross country skiing, cycling, as well as running at a higher level for a longer period of time. As you can imagine that would give an athlete a significant advantage. A new-Mexico study showed that EPO use can shave up to 69 seconds off of a world-class 10,000 meter time.In any world class event such as track and field, a 69 second deficit is the difference between being considered the worlds-finest to just another middle runner. This is what inspires athletes to dope. But is it fair? No it is not. I have d iscussed in this essay three types of cheating in sports and their advantages. I have successfully answered the question, is cheating in sports ethical. Cheating in sports has been around for many hundreds of years and no-one will ever change the fact that people will cheat and find a way to win any way possible.

Ctlls Unit 3 Principles and Practice of Assessment

Unit Three: Principles and practice of assessment Methodology Firstly we had input during classes from our tutor on the categories of concepts and principles of assessments, how to use different types of assessments and some of the strengths and weaknesses of these methods, the role of feedback and questioning in the assessment of learning and the different types of assessment records and their uses. Next we individually researched these topics, to do this firstly I used discussions with my mentor, observations of colleague’s sessions, discussions with my peers and evaluation and reflection of my own teaching sessions. My secondary research consisted of academic books, internet sources, as identified in the bibliography. I chose this approach because it gave me the widest range of resources, varying information and views on the subjects. I could then collate the primary and secondary research to write my precis and form my opinions on the research I had undertaken. The focus of my research was on concepts and principles of assessment, the different types of assessments and how to use these, the different assessment methods available along with their strengths and weaknesses especially peer and self assessment, what is feedback and how to make it effective and reviewing and recording learner progress and achievement. This precis will then enable me to better evaluate my own practice and help me to ensure I undertake the assessment process more effectively in the future. Precis ‘Assessment is about several things at once†¦ It is about reporting on students’ achievements and about teaching them better through expressing to them more clearly the goals or our curricula. It is about measuring student learning; it is about diagnosing misunderstandings in order to help students to learn more effectively. It concerns the quality of the teaching as well as the quality of the learning. Ramsden (2003). Assessment is a regular process that enables both tutors and learners to assess the progress of a learner and make judgements about the learning. These judgements then guide the tutor and learner towards the intended learning outcomes, goals that are to be achieved and any improvements required to obtain the desired qualification. Good practice is to reflect and evaluate after each assessment as this will give you the opportunity to improve in the future. The programme syllabus or qualification handbook is the starting point when planning assessments. These will ‘state how the subject should be assessed, and will give information and guidance in the form of an assessment strategy. ’ Petty (2009). If the subject you are teaching is with an official awarding body, they may also have some requirements with regards to assessments that a tutor should be familiar with. When planning assessments you should ensure they are valid, authentic, current, sufficient and reliable (VACSR). This can be done by asking yourself what, when, where, why, who and how questions; for example, does it assess what is in the syllabus? Remember that assessments should never discriminate or exclude any learners and should always allow equality of opportunity. There are two forms of assessment; Assessment of Learning – this is basically what the learner has learnt at the moment. It measures knowledge retention and uses grading and/or marks. This is summative assessment. Assessment for Learning (AFL) – this determines learner’s goals/targets to build a program or course. This type of assessment focus more on the gaps in learners knowledge rather than teaching the whole subject and about finding faults and fixing them (monitoring improvement). This is formative assessment. These two forms of assessment are both needed by individual learners and society but I think that AFL is a more valuable tool for the individual learner as it is much more centred on where a learner is in their learning, where they need to go, what is the best way to get there and allows time to achieve their full potential (learner focused). The Assessment reform group (1999), list AFL having and learning * AFL should focus on how students learn * AFL should be recognised as central to classroom practice * AFL should be regarded as a key professional skill for teachers * AFL should be sensitive and constructive because any assessment has an emotional impact * AFL should take account of the importance of learner motivation * AFL should promote commitment to learning goals and a shared understanding f the criteria by which they are assessed * Learners should receive constructive guidance about how to improve * AFL develops learners capacity for self-assessment so that they can become reflective and self-managing * AFL should recognise the full range of achievements of all learners. These principles mean providing effective feedback that enables learners to improve and plan the next steps; adjusting our teaching to take account of the results of assessments, including focusing on the whole person their feelings, skills and barriers; recognising the influences of assessment on motivation and self esteem of learners as well as learners taking responsibility for their own learning which in turn can help with knowledge retention and the need for learners to be able to assess themselves and understand fully how to improve through peer and self assessment and reflection. This helps with the next steps needed for further learning. AFL is a particular view of learning that believes all learners can improve and achieve their full potential, that ability is incremental not fixed. Within these forms of assessment there are different types of assessments that are used at different points throughout a learners learning journey and these different assessments may be formal or informal. Formal assessments are usually based on the results of standardised tests or other exams that are done under controlled conditions, the criteria is often set by the awarding body or organisation and the results can contribute to the final grade. Informal assessments are methods of measuring a learner’s performance by casually watching their behaviour or using other informal assessment methods, they check ongoing progress and the criteria are often decided by the tutor. The main types of assessments are; diagnostic/initial, formative and summative and ipsative. Within my experience at the training centre of the YMCA and within most HE organisations the first assessment that learners would come across is Diagnostic/Initial assessment. Initial assessment occurs prior or at the start of a course. It is used to find a starting point for learning, making the development of a learning plan possible. During initial assessment you can ‘start to build up a picture of an individual’s skills, achievements, interests, previous learning experiences and goals, and the learning needs associated with these goals. ’ Skills for life improvement programme (2008). Diagnostic assessment also occurs at the beginning of a course and then when needed throughout. It is used to assess more specific skills like a ‘skills check’ would and to identify learning strengths and needs. Diagnostic assessment also helps to ‘determine learning targets and appropriate teaching and learning strategies to achieve them. ’ Skills for life improvement programme (2008). These two assessments types are often done at the same time and are closely linked, together they help the tutor and learner build a clear picture of the individual to personalise the learning and develop an ILP. When under taking these two assessment types a range of methods should be used to ensure the learner is able to show their strengths and weaknesses adequately. Use assessment methods that are relevant to the individuals interests (vocational area or life interests), select a blend of methods to suit them and their circumstances and try to gather information from other areas, for example, observe the learner on a work placement if possible. There are many assessment methods that can be used during initial and diagnostic assessment, here are a few: enrolment forms – these can give you the basic information about an individual, however, they may not put all relevant information on this form such as any learning difficulties or cultural needs. APL – this can mean there would be no need for the learner to duplicate work done previously but the criteria may not be the same and you would need to check currency of the work. Interviews – these allow tutor and learner to get to know each other and discuss any issues in more depth whilst enabling the tutor to see how much a learner knows. The disadvantage with this method may be that the planning has not been done carefully or thoroughly to ensure the consistency of questions between learners and some learners may not react well in this circumstance. Observations – this gives a broader picture of the learner and how they perform in a range of contexts giving insights into their strengths, team work etc. Disadvantages with this method are time constraints and if a learner feels nervous of being observed you may not get a true picture of their abilities. Online assessments/tests – results are generated instantly, easily blended with other methods and can take place at a time to suit all parties. However, clear targets need to be set, may be technical problems and what is actually being assessed. Is the learner computer literate? At the YMCA I devised a short general computer knowledge diagnostic assessment worksheet for my learners. This worksheet consisted f naming different parts of a computer along with writing a brief description of what each listed software could be used for. I used this after an initial assessment informal discussion with individual learners to ascertain their level of computer knowledge as well as a basic writing assessment. The diagnostic worksheet then allowed me to assess their knowledge further so that I could devise ILP’s with each learner to cover any gaps in their knowledge, help them to achieve agreed goals and to offer further support to those learners that required help with writing skills. The next assessment type that may be used is Formative assessment. This type of assessment is ongoing during learning and is used to ‘tell the student how the learning is proceeding as well as telling the teacher about the success of the teaching. ’ Reece & Walker (2007). Formative assessments are used to enhance learning; therefore the goal of formative assessment is to improve. William and Black believe that what a learner is taught is reflected in what they are assessed. Formative assessment can be characterised as Assessment for learning. This type of assessment can produce; non-threatening results as they are scored but not always graded, direct and immediate feedback, structured information as tutors can see success and plan improvements and learners can see progress as well as experience success and they produce ways to improve by allowing the tutor to revisit areas that need further development and allowing learners to have additional support or time on areas they performed less well on. As this type of assessment is ongoing many methods are used. In my subject area of ICT within the YMCA the courses are not accredited so there is no awarding body’s criteria to adhere to. As ICT is a very ‘hands on’ subject I use observations often in formative assessments. Gravells (2009) suggests that the advantages to observations are ‘enables skills to be seen in action, learners can make a mistake†¦ enabling them to realise what they have done wrong, can assess several aspects of a qualification at the same time (holistic). According to Reece & Walker (2007) there are four types of direct observation assessments, global impression – look and describe what you see, this method has no structure and lacks reliability. Semi-structured – a number of open questions relevant to the tasks, answers to the questions are written either during, or after observation. Rating schedules – tutor rates a performance on say a five point scale, pe rsonal interpretation of scale can cause unreliability and finally Checklists – mark whether a specific feature of the task was or was not carried out. My observations are mainly informal and consist of watching what the learner is doing and asking questions about why they have done something a certain way etc. When I have done a formal observation I have used the checklist formative assessment as I agree with Reece & Walker that this type of observation is less open to personal interpretation, the criteria is clearly set out and if being used by the learners as peer or self assessment they have a clear understanding of what is required and what is to be achieved. Other methods I have used in both teaching at the YMCA and South Cheshire College have been questioning (both direct and indirect oral), multiple choice – as these can test a variety of levels in blooms taxonomy from knowledge, understanding and higher, discussions – these allow freedom of views and learning from peers, presentations – assess skills, knowledge and can help with confidence but if a group presentation some learners may do more work than others so it is important to assess individual contributions, assignments and projects – these help to ensure that the knowledge has been understood and retained, tutorials – used to discuss progress and address any issues, tests – assesses skills and knowledge, however, some learners do not perform well in test conditions and may need additional support to overcome this or if possible an alternative assessment method, traffic lights – used as a visual means to show understanding. During the courses at the YMCA in the next academic year I intend to introduce an informal mid-unit assessment. This will allow time to review, reflect and revisit any areas of weak understanding or areas that learners have struggled with. If assessments are left till the end of the course there is no way to revisit these unlearnt areas. I am aware of online assessments but as of yet have not used these, mainly because the courses at the college that I have been teaching on do not use them and at the YMCA there is not reliable facilities for online assessment/testing. I do intend to look further into this aspect of assessment once the new premises at the YMCA are finished and I think that the learners would benefit from online assessments as these can assess both cognitive and practical abilities. However this method of assessment needs to be monitored carefully to ensure who is actually taking the test/assessment, is the software or hardware up to date and that extensive objective testing is not done as this can result in learners guessing the answers. Summative assessment is on completion of learning. This may be at the end of a course or programme or may be at the end of a unit or topic. It is mainly used to see if the learner has learnt the material and is capable of going onto further learning. Brown (2001) suggests the purpose of summative assessment is ‘to give a license to proceed to the next stage of graduation (certification). ’ Reece & Walker suggest that summative assessment is ‘to satisfy the needs of society. ’ Both of these quotes imply that this type of assessment is about grades and is to show that the learner has the knowledge and at what level (pass, merit, distinction) to continue or not (failed). These grades do not always tell the learner why they achieved a certain level or why they failed. Summative assessment can be characterised as Assessment of learning. Many of the methods used for summative assessment are the same as formative assessment but often done in a formal setting rather than an informal setting. During my teaching at the YMCA I have used the following methods for summative assessments; Individual presentation – knowledge, skills, creativity, performance, design and communication, exam – demonstrating knowledge and understanding, performing procedures and demonstrating techniques, Portfolio – managing and developing self, oral exam and observations – for learners with reading and writing difficulties. Ipsative assessment can be used as a form of self assessment. It is assessing present performance against the prior performance of the person being assessed. They do not always relate to any external criteria or make comparisons to the performance of other learners. My teaching at the YMCA I have used this type of assessment mainly during feedback sessions, where learners and I will discuss previous work and present work, what has improved and what could still be improved upon. Another way to implement ipsative assessment is to encourage learners to assess their own work, to select the best pieces for their records of achievements folders and to identify areas for improvement. This can then be continued with self-evaluation of progress during sessions/lessons and on specific tasks. There are many more methods to use during assessments each with its own advantages and disadvantages, such as; Accreditation of prior learning (APL), buzz groups, case studies, discussions, e-assessments, homework, journals, professional discussion, projects, puzzles and quizzes, reports and dissertations, role play, tutorials, tests, etc. The main disadvantage to any assessment method is that many learners and tutors may not be use to them as some of them may be new and innovative or there may be a lack of technology available. By ensuring tutors are up to date with assessment methods and a variety of methods are used learners will benefit by being able to fairly show their strengths and weaknesses in a range of circumstances, therefore, it is best practice to use a blend of methods to get the best and most reliable results for your learners. Two other types of assessments I would like to investigate further in this paper are Self and peer assessment. These are often combined or considered together and have many potential advantages in common. Peer assessment can help self assessment. By judging the work of others, learners gain insight into their own performance. ‘Peer and self assessment help students develop the ability to make judgements, a necessary skill for study and professional life. ’ Brown, Rust & Gibbs (1994). Black & Wiliam’s research ‘Inside the black box’ concludes that self assessment is an essential component of formative assessment if it is to be used to improve student learning. I agree with the findings of this research in that self assessment is a skill that should be encouraged and developed as it can have a positive effect on learners performance and motivation. Peer and self assessments are used to enhance learning by increasing learner involvement in the learning process, increasing social interactions and trust in others, facilitation of individual feedback and to help focus learners on the process rather than the product. For both peer and self assessment to be successful Black states that ‘criteria must be understood by students†¦. students must be taught to collaborate in peer assessment for this helps develop objectivity for self-assessment†¦.. students should be taught to assess their progress as they proceed keeping the aims and criteria in mind†¦. This means that tutors should plan lessons that will teach learners to collaboration skills and make it visible as a part of the classroom, criteria could be provided by the tutor or devised by the learners and could also include a mark scheme, making these judgements about another person’s work can clarify a learners own understanding of the subject. During teaching at the YMCA I used self and peer assessments in group projects. I gave the project a final mark but used these assessment methods to give individuals within the group marks. To do this I got the learners to peer assess each other and based my individual marks upon these peer assessments. However, I was aware that there could be problems with this method such as some learners being too generous with marks or too low with marks. To overcome these problems I checked the marking to ensure consistency throughout the group and set out clear mark schemes. Another method of self assessment I use is ‘learning loops’ Petty (2009). This is where at the beginning of the next piece of work the learner will write a target from the last piece of work and then work towards that target, then I will mark this work with that target in mind and comment as to whether the target was met or if any improvement was shown. This method was useful with my learners in getting them to reflect upon their own work and take responsibility for their own learning as well as helping with their motivation. I have also used an adaptation of the feedback sandwich, called the Peer assessment Hamburger (included in my portfolio). This assessment activity was given to the learners to assess each other’s work; they first had to write about something positive about the piece of work then something to work on and how to work on it, then something positive again. This method was successful in my group of learners as getting them to receive any form of constructive feedback or advice is difficult, so by praising first they were more willing to listen and act upon the points for improvement. This method also helped the learners to gain skills in judging and evaluating work which in turn helped with self assessment/evaluation techniques. It is important to follow up on the improvement points at a later stage to ensure that an improvement has been made or to offer further assistance or teaching in that area if necessary. These areas for improvement were also noted in ILP’s during tutorial sessions as ‘Medals and Missions’, medals are what has been done well this may be the work itself (product) or may be the effort and planning (process). Missions are information about what needs improving along with how to do this, they are not criticism but advice and help to close the gap between where learners are and their goals. I believe that peer and self assessment are two very important and useful methods of assessment as ‘whatever a person discovers himself is what they really know. ’ Shapiro (2003). A learner needs to know where they are in their learning, where they are going and how to get there, these two methods help learners to understand this and achieve much more. Feedback simply put is ‘the passing of information to the student of their ability to perform a task’ Reece & Walker (2009). Although feedback is about giving the learner information on how they have performed it is much more than this, it is about progression, motivation, encouragement, self-esteem and confidence, promoting communication, improving standards etc and is a two way process. During all the research I undertook for this part of my paper I found one thing in common throughout, that feedback is a very important and powerful tool in relation to achievement when done constructively and properly. ‘The most powerful single moderator that enhances achievement is feedback’ Hattie (1999). Feedback can be formal or informal, it can be written, verbal or online, and it can be given after an assessment or during a lesson or tutorial. Whichever form feedback takes it should be constructive, descriptive not judgemental, specific, fully understood and timely. Feedback is used often during formative assessment and Sadler (1989) suggests ‘three elements of enhanced feedback are; recognition of the desired goal, evidence about present position and some understanding of a way to close the gap between the two. ’ This means the learner needs to have some understanding or concept of the goal being aimed for, learners need to be shown the comparison with current level of performance with that of the goal and learners should be shown ways in which the gap between the goal and current level can be closed. It is important to prepare learners for feedback to help them gauge how well they are doing, to actively involve them in the assessment process and to help them to understand the feedback. To do this you should agree the purpose of the feedback prior to the assessment, state the type of feedback to be used, show learners how their work. Written feedback is important for giving positive encouragement and correcting errors but is more effective if this feedback is accompanied with dialogue where possible. This dialogue or discussion can improve learner involvement and ownership of the feedback and create a deeper understanding of what was done well and what can be done to close any gaps. Also Gravells (2009) states that ‘you need to appreciate that how you write it may not be how they read it. It is easy to interpret words or phrases differently to what is intended. ’ Therefore when using written feedback you need to use a level of language suitable for your learners, make it clear how the required outcomes were met and what to do next. Using some form of feedback sandwich or hamburger is a good form for written feedback as this nestles the negative between two positives. This makes it more likely to be listened to and acted upon, whereas starting with a negative can stop the learner from listening/reading anything further. Another form of written feedback is comment only marking, this provides learners with a focus for progression instead of a reward or punishment for their ego as marks can. Comments can be made in books, in a learning diary or journal for example. Learning journals are useful for tutors and learners to track the progression of these comments and see improvements. During feedback sessions there should be time for questions as these will help to open up the assessment process and eliminate ambiguity. Using questions to ask learners how they feel they have done prior to giving them your feedback allows them to consider their own achievements, ‘gives them the opportunity to realise their own mistakes, or reflect on what they could do differently. ’ Gravells (2009). Also learners may need time to reflect upon the feedback they have been given and then have questions to it later, time to discuss these questions at the earliest opportunity should be made. Another important point in the feedback process is timing. Feedback should be given as soon as possible whilst the task and goal are still fresh in both the tutor and learners minds. Peer feedback is another useful form of feedback. This enhances learners active engagement in learning, can increase the amount of feedback they receive and they can receive it quicker than a tutor can give sometimes, it uses higher level thinking skills as it requires explanation and justification. The process of reviewing someone else’s work can help learners understand what is considered good work and increase their ability to achieve. Peer feedback should be monitored carefully as not all learners will be accustom to this and there may be some friction amongst your learners. To help overcome this allow practice sessions on peer assessment and feedback, set clear assessment criteria, stress that all will gain as much from reviewing the work of their peers as from any feedback they receive, use tutor-selected groups to peer assess and feedback work, have multiple peers review work, reviewers should feedback immediately, orally preferably, and tutors should explain clearly the best feedback method of Medal and Mission as suggested by Black & Wiliam. As well as giving feedback on assessments you should review learner’s progress at regular intervals on a one-to-one basis. This will allow you to motivate learners, plan for future learning and assessments, discuss any concerns, learners can ask questions, enhance learner involvement, update ILP, review your lessons and ‘differentiate effectively, ensuring that the needs of your learners are met, and that they are being challenged to develop to their full potential. ’ Gravells (2009). The review should be arranged at a suitable time for both the learner and tutor, be used to plan future assessments and targets with SMART objectives and you should ensure that all relevant records are available, etc. When doing any type of assessment, review or feedback there are records that need to be kept, this is important ‘otherwise how would you know what your learners have achieved? ’ Gravells (2009). Assessment records are used by tutors, your organisation, awarding body, regulatory authority, stakeholders and learners. Records can be electronic, paper or a mixture of both. The types of records I keep at the YMCA are; ILP’s, feedback sheets, tracking sheets, assessment forms, lesson plans, schemes of work, evaluations and review sheets. These records are kept in their original forms and used to help me plan future lessons and make any adaptations to existing courses if necessary, keep track of learners marks to be able to see any progression and if a learner loses work I have a record of when it was handed in, marked and what mark it got, what feedback they received to help learners know what they did well and what needs further improvement and how to do this improvement also feedback sheets can be used by an IV or EV to check your judgements and assessments are fair, and to keep a record of learners progress, areas that need attention, learning difficulties etc if any, agreed goals and targets. Whatever method or type of record is used there is legislation that must be adhered to with regards to these records and the information held within them. These legislations are; Data protection Act (1998) and Freedom of information act (2000). These acts cover how the information about living eople is used and stored, and g ive learners the right to see any information held about them, so tutors need to be aware that anything they write about a learner they can see at any time. Records should be kept organised, up to date, confidential, legible, accurate, secure and only kept for as long as necessary. Once these records are no longer needed they should be destroyed in a secure manner such as double shredding and bagging for paper based records, and hard drive cleaners to ensure computer based records are completely deleted. Assessment is a large part of the work teachers, tutors and trainers; it is an ongoing process throughout a learners educational journey and can be the most difficult part of the teaching process. There is recognition here that assessment is more than an isolated judgement of a specific performance; that is should be integrated into a system of reviewing, recording and reporting achievement which teacher and student are at the centre of. ’ Armitage et al (2007). Bibliography Books: Armitage et al (2007), Teaching and training in post-compulsory education, 3rd Ed, Berkshire, Open University Press Gravells. A. (2009), Principles and practice of assessment in the lifelong learning sector, Exeter, Learning matters Ltd Hattie, J. (1999), Influences on student learning, University of Auckland, New Zealand: Inaugural professional lecture paper Petty G (2009), Teaching today, 4th Ed, Cheltenham, Nelson Thornes Ltd Ramsden. P, (2003), Learning to teach in higher education, 2nd Ed, Routledge. Reece, I. & Walker, S. 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